This is Part 3 of the series Why Religious Liberty Matters
Balancing Belief and Practice: The Early Challenges of Religious Liberty
By the early 19th century, America was an independent, rapidly expanding nation, but the ideals set forth in the First Amendment were still being tested. While the Founding Fathers had laid down a broad foundation for religious liberty, applying these principles across a diverse and evolving country was complex. States grappled with the balance between enforcing laws and protecting individual beliefs, particularly when religious practices seemed to contradict social norms or legal frameworks.
Religious pluralism began to flourish as new groups emerged, including Mormons and other revivalist movements, sparking public debate over how far religious freedom should extend. By the late 1800s, cases like Reynolds v. United States would prompt the Supreme Court to clarify the boundary between religious belief and practice. The American experiment with religious liberty was evolving, and the nation faced pressing questions: Could faith be entirely free from state control? And when religious practices conflicted with secular laws, whose rights prevailed?
Religious Liberty in Early America
In the early days of the Republic, the First Amendment’s guarantee of religious freedom applied only at the federal level. This left individual states with considerable power to shape their own approaches to religious liberty, often incorporating elements of Christianity into public life. Some states still maintained official religious establishments or provided financial support to specific denominations, especially in New England (McConnell, 1990). The nation’s founders debated the extent to which Christianity should play a role in public life, with figures like John Adams seeing religion as essential to morality and social order. Adams famously stated, “Our Constitution was made only for a moral and religious people. It is wholly inadequate to the government of any other” (Adams, 1798).
However, this emphasis on Christianity presented challenges for religious minorities. Baptists, Catholics, and Jews, among others, often found themselves excluded or marginalized. In Virginia, for instance, Baptists faced harassment before Thomas Jefferson and James Madison championed the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom. This statute, which proclaimed “no man shall be compelled to frequent or support any religious worship, place, or ministry whatsoever,” became a model for the type of religious liberty the Founders envisioned on a national scale (Jefferson, 1786).
Despite these advances, many states continued to struggle with the practicalities of religious liberty. The question persisted: could the same government that claimed to protect religious freedom also endorse Christianity as its moral backbone? This debate highlighted the tension between the ideal of a “wall of separation” and the reality of a society deeply rooted in Christian values.
Landmark Case: Reynolds v. United States (1878)
The struggle to define the boundaries of religious freedom reached the Supreme Court in 1878 with the case of Reynolds v. United States. George Reynolds, a member of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons), was charged with bigamy after marrying a second wife, a practice permitted by his faith but prohibited by federal law. Reynolds argued that his religious beliefs should exempt him from the law, claiming that penalizing his practice of polygamy was a violation of his First Amendment right to free exercise of religion (U.S. Supreme Court, 1878).
The Court, however, ruled against Reynolds, drawing a distinction between religious belief and religious practice. In a landmark decision, the Court declared that while religious beliefs were protected, practices deemed harmful to public order were not. Chief Justice Morrison Waite wrote, “Laws are made for the government of actions, and while they cannot interfere with mere religious belief and opinions, they may with practices” (U.S. Supreme Court, 1878). This ruling set a significant precedent, establishing that religious freedom had limits, especially when a practice conflicted with federal law or public morality.
The Reynolds decision underscored the complexities of balancing religious liberty with societal norms and legal boundaries. While the First Amendment protected the right to believe freely, the government retained authority over practices it deemed dangerous or disruptive. This decision would serve as a foundation for future cases where religious practices challenged state and federal laws, reinforcing the idea that religious liberty was not absolute when it collided with public welfare.
Religious Pluralism and New Movements
The 19th century also witnessed the rise of new religious movements that challenged both social norms and the mainstream Protestant establishment. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, founded by Joseph Smith in the 1830s, is perhaps the most notable example. The Mormons faced relentless opposition as they practiced their unique beliefs, which included the controversial doctrine of polygamy. This doctrine led to frequent clashes with local communities, prompting the Mormons to migrate westward to Utah in search of a place where they could practice their faith in peace (Givens, 2009).
This period saw a wave of religious revivalism, with movements like the Second Great Awakening fueling the growth of denominations such as the Methodists and Baptists. These movements often challenged the social order by encouraging a more direct, emotional connection to faith and sometimes questioning the authority of traditional denominations. The emergence of new sects and practices led to growing tensions, as established communities reacted to what they saw as threats to social stability. Religious pluralism was both celebrated as a sign of liberty and viewed as a potential source of conflict.
The societal pushback against Mormons, as well as other minority religious groups, revealed the limits of America’s tolerance. Although the nation prided itself on religious freedom, the boundaries of that freedom were tested as new religious practices challenged conventional beliefs. The Reynolds case exemplified this tension by drawing a clear line between belief and practice, allowing Americans to hold diverse religious convictions but restricting practices deemed incompatible with public morality.
Reflective Questions
Reflecting on these early challenges and interpretations of religious freedom, consider the following:
- What significance do you see in the Reynolds decision’s distinction between belief and practice?
- How do you think early struggles with religious pluralism continue to influence America’s approach to religious liberty?
- In what ways might the Founders’ vision of religious liberty be tested by today’s increasingly diverse society?
These questions encourage us to think about how the issues of belief, practice, and public order continue to shape our understanding of religious liberty.
Conclusion
The 19th century was a formative period for religious liberty in America. As the nation expanded, so did the diversity of its religious landscape, creating both opportunities and challenges for those seeking to exercise their faith freely. Cases like Reynolds v. United States highlighted the tension between the ideals of the First Amendment and the practical limits of religious freedom when practices conflicted with the law. Meanwhile, the rise of new religious movements underscored the complexities of maintaining a society where faith is both diverse and protected.
In our next post, we’ll explore how the principles of religious liberty expanded further in the 20th century, as landmark cases continued to shape America’s approach to freedom of conscience. The early challenges of balancing belief with societal order laid the groundwork for a more nuanced understanding of religious freedom—one that respects diversity while safeguarding public welfare.
Chris Reighley is a Colson Fellow and a leader grounded in faith, family, and mission. With a career spanning servant leadership, digital marketing, and servant leadership, he is driven by a passion for empowering others. He is pursuing an Executive Master’s at The Bush School of Government and Public Service at Texas A&M and a Master of Arts in Biblical Studies from Redemption Seminary. Through Shoe Leather Gospel, Chris is dedicated to combating biblical illiteracy and mentoring future leaders.
References
Adams, J. (1798). Message to the Officers of the First Brigade of the Third Division of the Militia of Massachusetts.
Givens, T. L. (2009). The Viper on the Hearth: Mormons, Myths, and the Construction of Heresy. Oxford University Press.
Jefferson, T. (1786). Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom. Virginia General Assembly.
McConnell, M. W. (1990). The Origins and Historical Understanding of Free Exercise of Religion. Harvard Law Review, 103(7), 1409-1517.
U.S. Supreme Court. (1878). Reynolds v. United States, 98 U.S. 145.
